Defeat of the Red Army Essay

By looking at what the areas where the Soviets failed during their in Afghanistan, we can further develop our counterinsurgency tactics and doctrine and shape our forces. Mujahideen Defeats of the Red Army An important and remarkable event in history was the Soviet-Afghan War. The Afghans, like their ancestors, battled a hostile, invading force that wanted to dominate their homeland. â€Å"For the first time, Afghanistan would become the center of a modern pan-Arab Jihad (Holy War)† (Hill, 2008). The Afghans were fighting a war of attrition just as their ancestors did during the Anglo-Afghan Wars. The Afghans would find themselves using modern weapons that had the potential of causing a high number casualties and emigration of greater proportions. The difference between the Afghans in the Soviet-Afghan War and the Afghans who fought in the Anglo-Afghan war would be the help and support from outside superpowers. By the end of the Soviet-Afghan War, the Soviet Union was at the point of falling; the Afghans and those who were assisting them were looking at a victory. How could such a powerful country like the Soviet Union be defeated by the Afghans? The Soviet Union lost the Soviet-Afghan War as a result of mistakes and failures that they made. The Soviets failure to seal the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, failure to stand up and effective Afghan Army and failure to win the hearts and minds of the Afghan people contributed to the defeat of the Red Army. Failure to Disrupt Supply Lines During the initial five years of occupation, the Soviets never mounted a sustained effort to cut off the Mujahideen supply lines that ran from Pakistan’s tribal areas, across the Hindu Kush Mountains, and into Afghanistan (Roy, 1991). Instead, the focus of the Soviets from 1980 to 1982 was to conduct large-scale armored operations in locations that were considered hotbeds of rebel activity. After 1982, the Soviets used aerial assaults to assist in their combat operations to eliminate the support base of the Mujahideen. It was not until 1985 that the Red Army starting making an effort to disrupt the Mujahideen supply lines. The Red Army began using Spetsnaz units, which were the Red army Special Forces units, behind Mujahideen frontlines, to organized surprise attacks against the rebel supply caravans. Once the Spetsnaz had the location of the Mujahideen, they would load into Mi-24 helicopter gunships, sneak behind the Mujahideen positions, and launch attacks. The effectiveness of the raids the Spetsnaz used became apparent in 1986 where there was a decrease in the number of Mujahideen attacks against the Soviets. The attacks against the Soviets decreased because the Mujahideen was not able to get men and equipment that they needed to mount an effective guerrilla campaign. The Soviets leadership was aware of the amount of men and a large amount of equipment that the Mujahideen was moving from Pakistan across into Afghanistan on regular bases, so it’s interesting why they did not make an effort earlier in the war to disrupt the supply lines. The Soviet leadership feared that if they conducted operations that might extend into Pakistan they would draw the United States into a large-scale war that the Soviets did not want. So, conducting operations on the Afghan side of the border against the rebels was an activity that the Soviets could justify without drawing the United States into the war. According to Oliver Roy, the Soviet failure to seal the border with Pakistan was the most significant military mistake in the war against the Mujahideen (Roy, 1991). With an unsealed border, the United States with the help of the help of the Inter-Service Intelligence, ISI, began funneling in weapons to the Mujahideen in the 1980. At the start of 1980, the Central Intelligence Agency began to purchase weapons from several countries to include China, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab nations. Once these weapons had been purchased they were shipped to the ISI headquarters located in Peshawar Pakistan. The United States funded some $30 million dollars in 1982, but in 1984, the CIA spent some $250 million purchasing pistols, AK-47s, ammunition, surface to air missiles, and other supplies for the Mujahideen. By 1985, the CIA was spending $500 million dollars on the resistance in Afghanistan. 1985 was the same year the President Ronald Reagan signed the National Security Decision Directive 166. This directive stated that the CIA was to drive out the Soviets from Afghanistan †by all means available† (Crile, 2003, p 363). In 1986, the CIA approved the purchase of heat-seeking missiles and almost 1000 per purchased. The heat-seeking missiles were very effective in downing the Soviets helicopters, but the Mujahideen did not put these missions into use until 1987. Pakistan who was driven by Islamic identity had a vested interest in the outcome of the Soviet-Afghan War and made a great effort to ensure that the Mujahideen was victorious. To ensure victory for the Mujahideen, Pakistan established a network that would transport all of the weapons that had been purchased to the Mujahideen. Once all of the weapons that had been purchased and arrived to the ISI headquarters the ISI would distribute the weapons to the Mujahideen, who would get the weapons and supplies to the soldier in the field. The Mujahideen would use tractors, trucks, camel, mules, and horses that could blend in with the rest of the cross border traffic or they would move on dirt roads that were only accessible by foot over the border into Afghanistan. It is evident that without the help of the Pakistanis, the Mujahideen would not have been able to fight because they could have not been able to supply their soldiers. Throughout the war, the Soviets and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, DRA attempted to pressure Pakistan’s President Zia to seal the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan with troops, but this came to no avail. President Zia responds to the request to seal the border was that Pakistan would not do it but that the Red Army and the DRA were more than welcome to do it. Regardless of who would attempt to seal the border it would be an impossible task when you consider the length and mountainous terrain that would have to be covered. In 1985, the Red Army started to disrupt the Mujahideen supply lines by putting thousands of troops on the border with Pakistan. At the same time, The Red Army began a bombing campaign hitting border towns that were sympathetic to the rebels and placing Spetsnaz units along the borders to conduct search and destroy missions from behind Mujahideen front lines. The Red Army began using their gunships to move up and down the border looking for destroying Mujahideen supply caravans. The bombardment used by the Red Army turned a large portion of the border etween Afghanistan and Pakistan to land that no longer could be inhabited. This depopulation effort started to become effective as it made it almost impossible for the Mujahideen supply caravans to move freely. In 1986, the Mujahideen countered the Red Army by using the Stringer missiles to bring down the Red Army Helicopters. To avoid being hit by a Stringer missile the Red Army Pilots had to fly at a higher altitude but the higher alt itude made it difficult for the Red Army to effectively attack the Mujahideen supply lines. Although the terrain along the Afghan and Pakistan border made it difficult to totally seal the border, it would have been possible to disrupt the flow of men and supplies coming into Afghanistan. This was evident by the Red Army between 1985 and 1986. Had the Red Army been willing to take a higher loss of life before 1985, it would have been possible to slow down the Mujahideen’s ability to get weapons into Afghanistan. The inability by the Red Army to establish an effective way to disrupt the Mujahideen supply lines was not the only reason that the PDPA could not survive without the support of the Red Army. The Red Army also failed to build an Afghan National Army that could protect the PDPA against the Mujahideen. Part of the reason why the Red Army could not stand up the Afghan Army was because there were Mujahideen sympathizers in the ranks. This is also part of the reason why the Soviets could not win the hearts and minds of the Afghan people. When the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan, they left the country without the means to protect its self. Failure to build an Afghan Army As early as 1980, Soviet leadership knew that it was going to be difficult to build up the Afghan Army. This was partially due to the fact that the PDPA regime was unpopular with many Afghan people, and there was also a deep hatred for the Red Army troops. The unwillingness to fight for the Soviet Union and the DRA was reflected by the decrease in the Afghan Army’s ranks. The Afghan Army decreased from 90,000 to 30,000 men from 1980 to 1983 (Schofield, 2003). During the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, it was common for Afghan soldiers to leave their units with their weapons and ammunition and join the Mujahideen. There is an account in July 1987 where an entire 2,000-man unit defected to the Mujahideen in Kandahar (McMichael, 1991). In addition to the defecting that was happening there were reports of Afghan officers frequently sabotaging Soviet equipment and vehicles. For the Afghans who remained many only fought because of the Soviet troops presences on the frontlines who would not allow them to runaway. As a result of the Afghans people unwillingness to fight for the Soviets and the DRA, the PDPA could only build a small military force, the total that numbers 120,000 to 150,000 fighting men. With its small size and the challenges they had recruiting the Afghans to fight for the PDPA regime, the Afghan Army was ineffective. The Afghan government was also only able to draft sixty-five percent of the personnel it needed to fight the insurgency they faced. Although the Afghan Army did have their share of success, these successes were limited. Mostly because the Mujahideen had sympathizers in the ranks that would provide the rebels with intelligence about upcoming operations that were planned. Since Mujahideen supporters had infiltrated the Afghan Army, Red Army soldier do not care to work closely on operations or share the intelligence they had because of fear that the details on upcoming operations would be shared with the rebels. To make matter worse for both sides, commanding officers of Afghan units would only be informed of upcoming operations one day in advance. On 9 January 1981, a conscription law designed to increase the strength of the DRA Army, was adopted by the Supreme Military Council of Afghanistan. The Afghan Army was given tanks, aircraft, armored personnel carriers, and small arms by the Soviets. Regardless of what had been given to the Afghan Army they were not going to be able to defend the PDPA regime from the rebels by the time the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan. This is based on the fact that it was going to be hard to recruit soldiers to fight for a socialist an also because many of the soldiers that had been recruited were informant for the Mujahideen. â€Å"The ineffectiveness of the DRA Army was illustrated by two Soviet deserters when they said, â€Å"The Kabul army was not an army, just a mess, with half of the soldiers running away and the other half joining the rebels† (Amstutz, 1986, p. 80). The inability of the Soviets to win over the Afghan population showed to be a tremendous obstacle as the attempt was being made to stand up an effective Afghan military. Had the Soviets convince the Afghan population that the PDPA was worth fighting for; the Soviet’s counterinsurgency plan could have been more effective in getting rid of the Mujahideen. The Soviets inability to win over the hearts and minds of the Afghan people ended up being a big obstacle that led to the Soviet defeat in Afghanistan. Failure to win the Hearts and Minds â€Å"The Soviets needed to convince the Afghan population that it had a stake in the survival of the socialist regime if they were to have a chance of preserving the PDPA government† (Delgado, 2006, p. 27). This would show to be impossible since the Afghan mullahs had declared jihad against the occupying Red Army. Knowing the jihad had been declared against the Red Army, they still launched a program with the intent on winning the hearts and minds of the Afghan people. The Soviets attempt to Sovietize the Afghan people used measures that included revamping the education system and teaching the population a pro-Soviet ideology. Adults and children were taught Marxist terms by Soviet institutions that had been imported into Afghanistan. The Soviets reformed the education system, reinterpreting Afghan history, taking control of the media in order to reeducate adults, and sending children to the Soviet Union in order to be educated. The Soviets goal in all of this was to create a version of Islam that the new Afghanistan would be based off. Building a strong Communist party was part of the Sovietization program. A strong Communist party would be the center of all legitimate political activity for the country. In order to monitor social organizations in Afghanistan, Soviet style government institution were established. A diligent effort had been made by the PDPA to indoctrinate its member, a majority of which joined the party so that they could obtain a job in the state. The task of trying to indoctrinate the member was difficult and many felt that it was irresponsible and corrupt. The DRA was unpopular throughout a large portion of Afghanistan. With this unpopular view of the DRA, there was a need to rewrite history in order to paint the Soviet Union in a more favorable light. This change to history was going to be done in two parts, first was to depict Russia as the essential supporters of Afghan independence, and the second was to minimize the cultural ties the Afghan people had with India, Pakistan, and Iran while emphasizing the ties with the citizens of the Soviet Union. The Soviets strategy in winning the hearts and minds of the Afghan people was not to turn all Afghan into Marxist, but to teach the Afghans that they identified more with the Soviet way of life than with traditional Afghan society and customs (Roy, 1989). The Soviets took total control of the Afghan media and bombarded it with pro-Soviet propaganda. The Soviets desired in all of this was to have the Afghans forget what their history was and replace it with the identity that the Soviets were giving them. The Soviets not only rewrote the history books and took over the media; the Soviets took control of the education system with the goal of molding a new generation of Afghans that would support the PDPA. To accomplish this, teachers who refused to do what was asked were arrested or exiled. â€Å"Fatherland Training Centers† were created around Afghanistan, where Afghan orphans were trained to be Soviet special agents, political organizations for children and teenagers in order to teach them to become faithful Soviet citizens. The Soviets made Russian the official language of all students attending middle school up to college. The Russians were committed to indoctrinating Afghan children. Statics reflects that by 1989, 000 Afghan students were being educated in the Soviets, and another 15,000 students annual would travel to the Soviet Union see the Russian way of life and to take part in short courses and training programs (Roy, 1989). The Soviets used psychological operation to undermine not only the Mujahideen but also the civilian population to resist the Soviet occupation and the PDPA regime. Some of the bigger programs used included massive leaflet drops, propagandistic radio programs, starting conflict between rival tribes that would undermine Mujahideen unity and bribing teachers to use their classroom in order to spread Soviet propaganda. KHAD Intelligence would insert special agents into Mujahideen units and prisons where Mujahideen members were held with the goal of getting information on operations that were being planned and to find out whom the leaders in the resistance were. Regardless of what the Soviets attempted to do in order to win the hearts and minds of the Afghan people they failed. The Afghans remained true to their Islamic identity, culture, and family traditions so it made it impossible for the Soviet Union to convince the Afghans that they were acting in the best interest of the country of Afghanistan by occupying and supporting the PDPA. With a call of jihad being declared against the occupying Red Army, it was going to be impossible for the Soviets to win the hearts and minds. The Afghans viewed the Soviets as an occupying force that were hostile to Islam so no program introduced by the Soviets to win the hearts and minds would be successful. The Soviets made an admirable effort to win over the Afghan people but due to the fact that they were viewed as a foreign occupier took away any possibility that they could convince the Afghan people to support the PDPA government. Winning the hearts and minds of the Afghan people were impossible from the beginning since the Afghan people had such a strong Islamic heritage and tribal culture and that the Soviets were viewed as a foreign occupier, but the Soviets also did not help themselves with their brutal campaign to drive Mujahideen supporters out of Afghanistan as refugees. The effort to rid Afghanistan of Mujahideen supporters left one million Afghan civilians dead and five million displaced (Roy, 1989). The strategy used by the Red Army to rid Afghanistan of Mujahideen supported included artillery strike against Pashtun villages, bombing raids and, the burning of agricultural fields, the killing of livestock through the use mines and artillery, and the contamination of water and food supplies through the use of chemical weapons (McMichael, 1991). The efforts made by the Red Army to deprive the Mujahideen from a portion of its civilian support network was successful, but with the brutal methods that the Soviets used in order to get the objectives done did very little for the chances of winning the hearts and minds of the Afghan people. Conclusion The Soviets lost the Soviet-Afghan War to the Mujahideen do to their own failures and any country could stand to earn a few lessons from the Soviets after their experience in Afghanistan. The first lesson would be the importance of disrupting the Mujahideen supply lines. Although totally securing the border may have been impossible, the Red Army could have focus more of an effort prior to 1985 to slow down the amount of men and supplies that were moving into Afghanistan from Pakistan. Had the Soviets been willing to take more of rest with their Soldiers, the Mujahideen would have never been able to get the supplies they needed into Afghanistan. The second lesson that could be taken from this is that before the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan they needed to ensure that the Afghan Army was ready to defeat the Mujahideen on their own. Since the Afghan Army was not able to defeat the Mujahideen on their own, everything that the Soviets attempted to achieve in Afghanistan was lost once the Red Army withdrew. The weak Army allowed Afghanistan to fall into a civil war where the Taliban came out victorious. The Soviets should have taken into consideration what they thought the status Afghan Army would be once they withdrew before invading Afghanistan. The third and final lesson is that it was going to be impossible for the Soviets to win the hearts and minds of the Afghan people. Many Afghans viewed the Soviets as invaders, and a jihad had been declared against them. Along with the hatred that the Afghans had for the Soviets the Soviets also countered themselves with brutal military operations against Afghans that were thought to be loyal to the Mujahideen. The Afghan population will refuse to support a regime that is viewed as a foreign occupier, regardless of the sophistication of the occupying country’s effort to win the native hearts and minds†(Delgado, 2006, p. 35). References Crile, G. (2003). Charlie Wilson’s War: The Extraordinary Story of the Largest Covert Operation in History. New York, NY: Delgado, J. A. (2006). Troubling Parallels: An analysis of America ’s Inability to overcome the obstacles that led to the defeat of the Red Army in the Soviet-Afghan War. Athens, OH: The University of Ohio. Hills, C. R. (2006). Beyond Charlie Wilson: The Soviet Afghan War. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta International School. McMichael, S. (1991). Stumbling Bear: Soviet Military Performance in Afghanistan. London, England: Brassey’s. Roy, O. (1989). â€Å"The Sovietization of Afghanistan. † Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Roy, O. (1991). The Lessons of the Soviet-Afghan War. London, England: Brassey’s. Schofield, V. (2003). Afghan Frontier. New York, NY: Tauris Parke Paperback.

Misconception of Femininity and Females

Misconception of Femininity and Females Femininity is a universal word that we all naturally develop an understanding for. When this word comes up many characteristics run through people's heads. However, the type of person everyone refers to is always female. Feminine and female seem to go hand in hand in our society. Unfortunately, this is a stereotype put on women today. This is because femininity is referred to as someone who is dainty or sensitive, soft spoken or indifferent, and dependent of a stronger individual. Over the years women have proven that this word should no longer define them.As the decades progress women become stronger and more independent, which allows them to take over more controlling roles and become a dominating factor in the work force. From this, the definition of femininity should not be the one thing females are defined as. One of the main characteristics of femininity is daintiness and sensitivity. People imagine someone who is very fragile, or even we ak. They are always in need of assistance and are unable to do very physical activities. Also, they are very emotional and need to express what is on their mind.These characteristics were viewed as very common in women from the 50's who were basically trophy wives and were never taken very seriously. Their only goal was to be the perfect wife and keep the man happy. From these women daintiness and sensitivity become a huge factor when defining femininity in America. Over the years women's roles have changed dramatically. They are no longer just a pretty face who cannot do anything for themselves. Through difficult times women have had to stand up and support their families because the man was not in the picture.This was first seen during World War II when all the men had to go overseas, which left their wives the responsibility of getting a job and taking care of the family. Due to this, the work force boomed with new female workers, whom were even taking traditionally male jobs lik e automotive and factory. Also, women were taking jobs to increase military supplies. For instance, like building weapons and airplanes, which developed the famous fictional female worker called Rosie the Riveter. From this, the characteristics of women started developing into a stronger individual who no longer solely relied on their husband.Also, they became emotionally stronger and were no longer seen as weak, helpless individuals who needed to be coddled. From this, the idea of a woman started to shift away from the central definition of femininity. The second basic trait of femininity is being very soft spoken and indifferent. Someone with this quality is usually very shy and does not over step their boundaries. They do not speak up about their opinions on a topic and tend to rely on a more dominating figure to determine what they believe in. Also, they are very passive and try to avoid confrontation with others.This explanation is very stereotypical to how women were viewed be cause men would only talk about controversial topics between each other and the female was not expected to have her own opinions. They were not given the chance to speak up and from this, women remained quiet and allowed their husbands to speak for the both of them. These early years exemplify how women were viewed and ultimately shaped the definition of femininity. As the years went on and women started to become stronger their opinions soon followed after. They were able to become more comfortable with themselves and started to emerge from the shadows of their husbands.From this, they started to speak up and even fight for what they believed in. As more women started to take charge the development of women's rights movements formed and grew exponentially. Women started to become more confident in their voice and were no longer going to be soft spoken, or indifferent. One of the first women's rights organizations created in 1913 was called the National Women's Party, lead by Alice Paul. The main objective of this organization was to gain voting equality, and to do this Alice organized Picketing in front of the White House for months.Eventually, the women influenced Congress to pass the 19th Amendment in 1920. During this time women began to realize their full potential and appear more dominating to others, which hugely shaped the view of women today. Women were no longer viewed as these feminine beauties, but instead, a strong confident individual who has the power to express her views and fight for her beliefs. The last main characteristic of femininity is that the individual is dependent of another. This person relies on a stronger force to take care of them and is unable to fend for themselves.This is a very common characteristic of a stay at home mom, which was very popular in the 50's. Their only task was to maintain the house and take care of the children, while the husband financially supported them. From this, they completely relied on their husband f or survival because without his pay check there would be no income. This is a very stereotypical view point of a female, which is why femininity becomes tightly associated with the traits of a woman. Over the years more women have strived to no longer depend on a male figure and instead, have excelled in the workforce.From this, there has been a huge increase of females going to college and building their own careers. This is seen statistically over the years because in 1950 one in three women worked, 1998 three out of every five women worked, and now, women account for 47% of the work force. In society today the stay at home mom is very uncommon because women have developed an independence from men. Women's priorities have shifted from wanted to start a family as soon as possible to now wanting to become successful first. Also, the jobs women are going into have dominantly been male driven in the past.For example, the business and science fields have experienced a huge increase in women workers with 60% accountants, 46% biological scientists and 78% Laboratory Technicians. From this, the stereotypes of females being weak and dependent of a male are extremely wrong, which is why the traits of femininity should not solely define a woman. Although not all women may act like the career driven female explained in this essay there has been a dramatic trend line towards this. More women are adapting stronger characteristics and shying away from the basic definition of femininity.People may argue that being feminine is only a trait someone possesses, but in our society women are immediately stereotyped due to the association that being feminine is weak. A human being should not be judged based on one word, which applies to all kinds of things in our society. For instance, if someone is gay people have a habit of associating all these stereotypes on that individual. Every person is different and we should not place generalization on them based on one characteristic. A s women begin to change society needs to change with them because one trait is only one part of a person's whole personality.

Year 12 stress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Year 12 stress - Essay Example In causing one’s death, the methods being used today are different but the intent and motivation are more or less the same. One of the frequently used methods involves trains and railroad tracks. Most of the suicide incidents reported in Japan these days involve students who flunked, or knew they would flunk, a high-stakes college admission test administered uniformly to graduating high school students nationwide. Japanese students have been raised to believe that their very lives and future ride on this battery of tests such that failure to pass it could mean the end of the world for them. That means abasement and dishonor to the proud Japanese. In the psychology of suicides, however, it is said that it is not enough that one’s sense of pride and honor is wounded to want to end it all. A strong instigating factor is stress which, psychologists say, comes from feeling out of control. So if an individual is in control of his senses, he might still seek ways to redeem his fallen honor and thus vindicate himself. Suicide thus becomes an attractive path only for people stressed out by the prospects of failure, which could be the reason for the alarming incidence of such cases among Japanese students. The same thing could be happening to Australian students in the past few years. A pressure-packed series of tests for pre-college students similar to Japan’s college admission tests has since the 1960s created the same sort of problem for public health and safety in Australia. Like the Japanese exams, a great deal of importance had been attached to the tests for Australia’s Higher School Certificate (HSC) that passing it has become a do-or-die proposition for the students involved. Too much is expected from students going through this examination that flunking it is considered out of the question. The HSC is

The Lottery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

The Lottery - Essay Example ear of the evil spirits.† The game of selective homicide begins and the main culprits get somewhat backing from the other villagers as if it were a status issue. Analyzing this â€Å"lottery†, Jackson describes the events of sacrifices and states, â€Å"It would seem, therefore, that the lottery is tied to the people’s work ethic and productive way of life.† (Jackson, 23) I could correlate this story with a real event in my locality. One day, police arrested a couple Mr. and Mrs. Gomes who lived in an apartment near our house. Later, we realized that Mr. Gomes had charges on him of physically abusing his stepdaughter. And to our horror, we also realized that Mrs. Gomes had supported her husband in doing this. Thus, instead of protesting, Mrs. Gomes took part in the exploitation of the poor girl. Maybe, this was an attempt on her part to maintain her status in the household and impress her husband, since he was the only earning member. â€Å"The Lottery† is actually a serious literary work that tries to discover why we sometimes form institutions and enjoy humiliating others through it. It is not merely a nice TV show script †¦ It provides a gateway towards complicated

Nuclear Weapons Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Nuclear Weapons - Coursework Example Currently, such as weapon would have a larger toll in modern city such as New York and Paris. In addition, a ground level explosion would lead to immense death s due to the intensity of local fallout that would lead to deaths within an hour or even two weeks as a result of radiation. However, such a phenomena was absent in the Japanese cities. After the 1945 incidents, there was an international outcry which resulted in the formation of international bodies such as the UN in order to regulate the building of nuclear weapons. However, this effort has failed miserably. It is of great importance to note that the two bombs that were initially used have been expanded (Kapur 2007). For instance, current bombs have a common nuclear yield of 150,000-500,000 tones. This would have a major devastating impact on the world if used in time of war. Nuclear proliferation entails the spread of nuclear weapons to countries that were not recognized as Nuclear Weapon States. Initially, nuclear weapons developed as a contest of superiority between the superpowers. Each powerful country required weapons that would infringe more losses to the enemy than the others that were in existence. This exerted the pressure on the countries to come up with weapons that would cause mass destruction. This was mainly during the Second World War when the two warring sides tried to look for weapons that would have a large number of casualties. The initial weapons that were in existence were tested during this war. However, they were not effective, an aspect that forced the US to come up with nuclear weapons especially because the war would provide the platform to test these weapons. Constant threats by the Soviet Union forced the US government to increase its budget towards military research. This is to ensure that the military was well equipped to face the enemies. After the World War

Criminal Behavior - A discussion of theories Term Paper

Criminal Behavior - A discussion of theories - Term Paper Example Accordingly, Mr. Gacy was dubbed the â€Å"Clown Killer† by the American media and his unsavory celebrity grew as his trial for multiple murders gripped the nation. Seeking to understand the particularly heinous crimes of Mr. John Wayne Gacy, this brief research paper will discuss the life and times of this violent murderer, the crimes he was charged with and the various impacts of his crime on our society. Following this complete overview of the crimes of John Wayne Gacy, this paper will discuss how two different criminological theorists would have viewed the crime as well as the causes of the crime. In sum, we will conclude with a discussion of where the perpetrator is now and the controversies surrounding his punishment (Bell and Bardsley 2009). John Wayne Gacy was born during the height of the Second World War during the relative tranquility of suburban Chicago and was the second of three children. It was reported that his father was both physically and mentally abusive as the young Gacy grew up in a strict Polish-Danish household. Teased about being overweight and supposedly demonstrating feminine characteristics as a young boy, John Wayne Gacy faced a series of challenges growing up. His scholastic record was shoddy and although he became a somewhat successful businessman, his previous academic record gave no indication that Mr. Gacy would achieve much financial success in life. As a young man who had dropped out of school and ventured to Las Vegas to win a livelihood, John Wayne Gacy married the first woman who paid him any attention, the unsuspecting Marlynn Myers. A daughter of wealthy parents and franchise owners of multiple KFC outlets in Chicago and the mid-west, the Myers entrusted John Wayne Gacy with the managem ent of their fast-food outlets following his marriage to their daughter in 1964. Moving to Waterloo, Iowa to manage one of the family KFC restaurants, Gacy and his wife

The Slave Trade in Colonial America Research Paper

The Slave Trade in Colonial America - Research Paper Example Slave traders, nevertheless, justified slavery, using British common law, some Christian beliefs, and natural rights philosophy, where these sources promoted slavery through racism. These sources stressed the inferiority of other races and the supremacy of the white race and culture, as well as the authority of Catholicism.1 For centuries, slavery progressed in Colonial America, but not without resistance from abolitionists and slaves themselves2. This paper describes the history and important events during the slave trade in Colonial America. It no longer deals with the abolition of slavery, but focuses on the economic aspects of the slave trade. The Beginnings of Slavery The history of slavery does not begin in colonial America but centuries before that, and it is said to have started in Europe. Booker T. Washington said that slavery of Africans began in A.D.990.3 The Moors who did not have â€Å"curly hair† also actively traded slaves in various countries in Europe and the Middle East.4 The Arabs even brought their â€Å"black ivory† to Cyprus and distributed them across Europe.5 The Portuguese, however, were attributed to be the originators of slavery in Christian Europe.6 Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460), third son of King John I of Portugal, established a navigation college at Sagres on Cape Saint Vincent in 1419, because he wanted to discover new lands and convert the heathens into Catholics.7 All non-Christians were then called as â€Å"heathens,† a pejorative word for people considered as uncivilized. During this time, the world was divided between the Portuguese and the Spaniards, the two Catholic powers with naval capabilities. The British wanted to emulate these old superpowers and explored North America as its colonial territory. From here, they brought and traded slaves, who sustained their new economy.8 The first group of English people sent to the Americas in 1590, the Roanoke, was not a success; they mysteriously dis appeared and were never found again.9 Still, this did not dent the English from pursuing the colonization of America. In 1606, a group of English investors had created the Virginia Company.10 They recruited people who were willing to be the new settlers in America. These new settlers did not originally conceive the need for slavery in their blueprint, because they focused on freedom and the opportunity to own land. Later on, it became clearer that in order to become rich, it was crucial to have the necessary labor to conduct economic activities competitively.11 This â€Å"peculiar institution† of slavery expanded as part of the plantation systems, first in sugar plantations, and then to tobacco and cotton plantations.12 The slaves are then called â€Å"black gold† because of trading profits and plantation profits. One scholar stressed that slavery is not based on color alone, but more for economic reasons: â€Å"The reason for Negro slavery is economic, not racialâ₠¬ ¦[it has more to do with] the cheapness of labor. As compared with Indian and white labor, Negro slavery was eminently superior†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 13 Slavery spread deeply and widely in South, where slave trading generally became predominant. Slave Trade in Colonial America The exact time and place of when and where the slave trade began in America is still debatable. One source

Discussion in special education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discussion in special education - Essay Example The members of the team include parents and teachers, school-based professionals, therapists, physicians, and the community. A childs welfare is of primary concern to a parent and teacher. When confronted with a condition that will affect childs health or ability to learn-whether for a week, a month, a year, or for life—relatives immediately question whether the diagnosis is accurate, and to what extent the condition will inhibit or delay the childs growth. An assessment of childs educational abilities will be made before a school district can place child in a program. Children may be eligible to participate in programs if they meet established criteria. It is important to be familiar with all of the components of the assessment process because the outcomes dictate actions that the school may take on behalf of the child. In addition, an assessment also determines the types of related services a child may need and be entitled to receive (e.g., occupational therapy, physical therapy, speech therapy). These early intervention services may be critical to childs development. In this case, teachers and o ther professionals give suggestions on how to prepare a child for an accurate assessment and ensure that a positive test-taking environment is provided. Teachers describe what takes place when professionals meet with a parent to discuss the results of the assessment and suggest how to use the results of the assessment to access the services the child needs. A questionnaire is included to help parents rate level of satisfaction during each step of the process (Ashman and Elkins 1990). Parents seldom know much about budget lines and funding sources. However, parents have the right to know if the school district is properly disbursing the funds earmarked for special education students. Parents can feel discouraged, desperate, and angry when things are not going well. A teacher may have tapped all the resources available through normal

United States Counterinsurgency (COIN) Operations Essay

United States Counterinsurgency (COIN) Operations - Essay Example Effective intelligence plays a major on wars against the insurgence as stipulated on the FM 3-24. The study reveals that the success of the operation on fields to bring down insurgents rest upon the effectiveness of the counter-insurgences team. Researchers have realized that a clear analysis of cultures, values, interest and strategic plans of a certain group in a society is the way forward to successful counterinsurgency. Studying the behavior of the insurgence, the population of the host country and the state will improve the success of the counterinsurgent team1. Additionally, the population provides more information regarding their behavior and the mode of insurgents. Research indicates that the insurgents use the population to gain their support and undermine the governing body. It is also indicated that the insurgents use the readily available tools to improve their supports. Such tools that can foster their support include political, economic, and informational to undermine the incumbent government. About such efforts by the insurgents, the counterinsurgency team would have to integrate themselves with the population. Such effort will provide them with more information about the techniques use by the insurgence. There are limitations to successful counterinsurgency; one that is clear is that most human intelligence operates in a short period in places with a high number of insurgence or in places that require counterinsurgency team. As clearly stated above, COIN requires deep analysis of the culture, believes, interest and perception of a certain group or an individual. Achievement of this can only be realized after a long period of mixing and studying such

Research continued Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Research continued - Essay Example It is imperative to note that when nurses take too long in one patient’s room, they lag behind in their work, yet they are charged with the responsibility of providing surveillance to prevent errors and ensure quality care. Patient safety is enhanced when effective hourly rounding is implemented (Deitrick, Baker, Paxton, Flores, & Swavely, 2012). Therefore, an appropriate outcome measure ought to be developed, which evaluates the extent to which the project objective is achieved. An outcome that is used to evaluate achievement of the project’s objectives involves patients and nurses. The nurses are required to provide health care to the patients in their wards or rooms, through hourly rounds. During these hourly rounds, nurses are supposed patient needs are expected to offer proactive care, addressing patient needs before patients ask for assistance. This can reduce patient falls and increase patient satisfaction. On the other hand, nurse satisfaction can be enhanced. Therefore, the outcome measure addresses patient satisfaction, nurse satisfaction and barriers, which nurses face, as they seek to achieve the objectives of the solution. The outcome measure register/log consists of five major rows and nine minor rows. In the major rows, outcomes such as patient falls, call lights, response to call lights, patient satisfaction and nurse satisfaction, as well as barriers to achieving hourly rounds’ objective are assessed. Response to call lights, patient satisfaction and nurse satisfaction outcomes are categorised into subdivisions of highly efficient to inefficient and high to low (See Appendix). In each column, each column represents a day, and the last column is meant for overall remarks. The nurses are supposed to fill all the sections of the outcome measure except the patient satisfaction part, which should be filled by patients. A weekly meeting,

Cambodian Genocide Essay Example for Free

Cambodian Genocide Essay Mass graves overflowing with bodies. Bodies which have been mutilated and burned lay on the ground. Carelessly thrown everywhere as if they are not even human. This was the sight in war torn Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge controlled Cambodia and terrorized the people. They killed people who were educated, from a certain ethnic group, from a certain region, opposed the Khmer Rouge or just wore glasses. People were taken to facilities used for killing and torture and were never seen again. People were forced out of the cities and put in work camps. The people from the cities were called the New People while the existing farmers and rural peasants were called Old People. The New People were despised by the Khmer Rouge for their Western ideas. The leader of the KR, Pol Pot set up the communist government in Cambodia after the U. S. A carpet bombed Cambodia and made it politically unstable. The genocide that followed this was horrendous. The effects of it still remain. The Cambodian Genocide followed the eight steps of genocide and negatively impacted Cambodia for years to come. Classification categorizes people based on their ethnicity, race, religion or nationality. A classification in this genocide was the Old People and the New People system. The people that were kicked out of the urban cities were called the New People because of their Western ideas. The people that were farmers before the Khmer Rouge takeover were called the Old People. The Khmer Rouge got most of their support from the rural people unlike the Soviets who gleaned their support from the urban elements. The New People were more abused than the Old People. They were considered the lowest in the village and had no freedom of speech. They had to listen to the other classes. They were also not allowed to farm because they had led â€Å"corrupt† lives and had to be trained to be â€Å"productive† workers. In order to break their spirits and instill a sense of loyalty, the New People were given the longest and hardest work. The New People were not the only people that were abused and killed by the Khmer Rouge. Muslim Chams were heavily killed and oppressed. They were forced to eat pork (which is highly discouraged in Islam). If they refused to eat it then they were killed with a blow to the back of the neck with a hoe. About 400,000 Muslims were killed through this extermination process. The classification stage was heavily used in the Cambodian genocide. Symbolization refers to how people apply symbols to these different categories. The Khmer Rouge assigned a blue scarf to the people who were from the Eastern Zones of Cambodia. This blue scarf was a basically a sign that told the Khmer Rouge who was marked for extermination.. They also killed people who wore glasses. They said that the glasses symbolized that the wearer could read and was therefore literate. They also targeted cities. They destroyed some and others were re purposed to fit their needs. They believed that the cities depicted a westernized ideology and that they could not fit into their peasantism ideology. Dehumanization is the third stage in genocide. It is the denial of the other groups humanity. It depicts the other group as being less human and helps the extremists get over their squeamishness to kill. This tactic was used to demonize higher ranking people of the opposition. This means that they painted their enemies as demons who threatened the well being of the revolution. All genocides are organized. No matter how little. The Khmer Rouge evacuated Phnom Penh which led to the desolation of cities. They also classified people as Old or New People which led to the division of the people. They separated families and children and sent them to work camps where they were forced to do hard labor. They also processed city dwellers and asked them to provide autobiographies in order to document their class background. This helped them draw up kill list for people who were suspected of treason or were just from an ethnic class that was despised by them or was unfit to live. Polarization is the act of killing the opposition or the moderates who oppose the extremists. The Khmer Rouge basically decided that they wanted to show that they had enemies. So they put the New People against the Old People. The New People hated the Old People because they were favored more by the Khmer Rouge and were not worked so hard and received more food. The Old People hated the New People because the Khmer Rouge hated them. This widened the gap between the people and made them easy to manipulate. They also painted the U. S. A and Vietnam as their enemies. Basically anyone who was tied to the West was considered an enemy. Dehumanization made it easier for the to kill the â€Å"enemy†. Identification is identifying the victims and classifying them. The Khmer Rouge was secretive from the beginning. They had an agenda that included the eradication of the Vietnamese in Cambodia, yet they relied on them as allies. In preparation, the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia secretly killed Cambodians that had been trained by the North Vietnamese. They were also forced to remain hidden because they were violently attacked by Prince Sihanouks government. Ironically after his exile, he joined forces with the Khmer Rouge. But all their alliances were temporary even though the Vietnamese and Prince Sihanouk thought of them as permanent. The Khmer Rouge had their own agenda. The forced evacuation of Phnom Penh was a preparation step for the genocide. Extermination is basically a fancy term for genocide but the frankness of it shows the effects of dehumanization. Extermination is a term that describes the killings of pests. The victims are not considered humans. They are considered vermin or pests. This prompted the makings of mass graves and the brutal killings that took place. People were killed by harsh forced labor, mass executions and internal killings. The KR imposed harsh labor. They forced the people to work from dawn till dusk. They barely had any food and they were not allowed to grow their own. The KR also conducted mass executions in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed. After sometime the KR became paranoid and started killing their own members who they suspected of treason. They also killed members who were not behaving in a way that the KR wanted them to. Denial is when the country in which the genocide took place tries to cover up the evidence and divert attention away from the atrocities that were committed there. They basically burned all the records and then don’t allow historians to view the very little records that have survived the burnings. They hide the evidence. They cover up the mass graves. They burn then or try to dig them up some more. This is done to make sure that they cant be tried by a court for their actions. Denial is a big problem because the destruction of the evidence makes it harder to try the people behind the genocide. The cruelty that the Cambodian people under went is unimaginable. But the worst part is that we could have stopped this atrocity during the first six stages of the genocide. Our reluctance caused suffering for people who unfortunately lived in Cambodia. The people who were behind it may have been brought to justice but their actions are still affecting Cambodia today. The Cambodian Genocide followed the eight steps of genocide and negatively impacted Cambodia for years to come.

Application Of Microcontroller In Instrumentation Information Technology Essay

Application Of Microcontroller In Instrumentation Information Technology Essay A  microcontroller  is a small computer on a single  integrated circuit  consisting internally of a relatively simple CPU,  clock, timers, I/O ports, and memory. Program memory in form of   NOR flash  or   ROM  is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for small or dedicated applications. Thus, in contrast to the  microprocessors  used in   personal computers  and other high-performance or general purpose applications, simplicity is emphasized. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at  clock rate  frequencies as low as 4  kHz as this is adequate for many typical applications, enabling low power consumption. They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano watts, making many of them well suited for long la sting battery applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. INTRODUCTION Embedded design A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and peripherals and can be used with an  embedded system.  The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. These are called  embedded systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Programs Microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assembler are used to turn high-level language and assembler language codes into a compact  machine code  for storage in the microcontrollers memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory. Other microcontroller features Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose of the  analog-to-digital converter  (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they wont be able to do anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a  digital-to-analog converter  (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels. Time Processing Unit  (TPU) is a sophisticated timer. In addition to counting down, the TPU can detect input events, generate output events, and perform other useful operations. A dedicated  Pulse Width Modulation  (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters,  resistive  loads,  motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer  loops. Higher integration In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, micro-controllers may not implement an external address or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package. A micro-controller is a single  integrated circuit, commonly with the following features central processing unit   ranging from small and simple 4-bit  processors to complex 32- or 64-bit processors discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an individual package pin. APPLICATION OF MICROCONTROLLER IN INSTRUMENTATION LIST OF MICROCONTROLLER BASED PROJECTS 1. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE USING LCD: The project shows resemblance as you are travelling in metro train. It will display three stations at LCD and a stepper motor to rotate clock or anti-clock wise. 2. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED VOTING MACHINE: The voting system for four candidates with memory backup to restore the results to be viewed with password. Now-a-days Electronic voting machines are being used effectively. The confidence of the voter in its flawless working is gradually building up and these machines are thus becoming quite popular throughout the country. Features of the electronic voting machine include avoidance of invalid votes and reduction of counting time and the consequent expenditure incurred on manpower deployment. By using the Microcontroller the voting machine can be built up easily and it will make simple to operate. 3. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED TEXT EDITOR CUM MOVING MESSAGE DISPLAY: The project comprises 30 keys to edit any message in English. One can restore the message in memory IC. The 16 characters at a time can be view in running mode. 4. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED FULL FUNCTION STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER: The project will operate the stepper motor in almost all modes viz. clock, anti -clock, speed and frequency control with time duration for both directions. 5. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED WATER LEVEL CONTROLLER CUM MOTOR PROTECTOR: It can indicate the level and control the water pump at top level filling. The present concept implements controlling of pump which pumps water from the sump (underground tank) to the overhead tank, using 8951 microcontroller. The control panel, i.e. the main control unit of the system which consists of the primary control switches, pump indicator, siren and level indicators. The visual example of how switches And the indicators can be placed as shown the figure below. 6. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED SIMPLE STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER: A simple stepper motor controller circuit with direction change only. A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motors position can be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.) 7. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED AUTO GEAR SHIFTING SYSTEM: The circuit shows the demo of auto shifting of gears using stepper motor with the change in speed of vehicle. One can change the speed of DC motor as actual vehicle running wheel. Motorcycle is widely used around the world and particularly in Pakistan. The gear shifting system of the motorcycle is conventionally manual. This paper covers development of an indigenous automatic gear shifting/changing system for the standard motorcycle. By this system the manual mechanical gear-shifting system will remain unchanged because an additional electro-mechanical system is placed on the vehicle to shift the gear and for automatic controlling the clutch. So the system has both the options manual as well as automatic. This system uses low-cost microcontrollers to make the accurate decision for shifting the gear up and down by observing the speed, and it controls the clutch transmission where necessary. The complete hardware and software has been tested and the functioning of the automatic gear sh ifting system is verified. This system is flexible and can be used with any motorcycle manufactured in Pakistan ranging from 50cc to 200cc. 8. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED AUTO SPEED LIMITER WITH AUTO BREAKING: The project is to read the rpm of an automobile and according to that it limits the speed as Speed Governor. One can change the speed with variable control. This Project can be used with the three phase Induction motors. The circuit will take the full control of the motor and it will protect the motor from several faults such us over voltage and under voltage and the circuit will switch on the motor under safety conditions. The circuit was fully controlled by the microcontroller and the microcontroller wills continuously monitors the voltages of the three phases and if the voltage goes abnormal then it will switch off the motor until they are normal. All the conditions are displayed it over the LCD display. In our project we are using the popular 8 bit microcontroller AT89S52. It is a 40 pin microcontroller. 9. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED FASTEST FINGER FIRST: Useful for Quiz games, dumb charades. It displays the player no. along with the beep for seven players. 10. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED TEMPERATURE METER: It will display the room temperature on LCD and one can set the desired value to indicate the alarm or control at a desired temperature. It uses an ADC to interface with LM-35 sensor. 11. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED INFRARED REMOTE CONTROLLED SWITCH BOARD: One can operate (on/off) four electrical devices with TV remote synchronized with circuit independently. 12. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED RANK DISPLAY SYSTEM FOR RACE QUIZ COMPETITION WITH LCD: It can resolve the time difference (may be few milliseconds) and indicate the correct ranking between the individuals denoted A to H 13. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED AUTO SPEED LIMITER/GOVERNER WITH AUTO BREAKING: The project is to read the rpm of a automobile and according to that it limits the speed as Speed Governor. One can change the speed with variable control. 14. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT: A Robotic car that follows the black line at the floor area based on IR sensors with transmitters and receivers. 15. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED YES MASTER FOLLOWER: A robotic car that follows his master who is sending an IR transmission always. 16. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED VOLTAGE/ POWER FACTOR / FREQUENCY METER: The project checks the electrical input factors as multifunction meter. 17. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C51 BASED RFID ATTENDENCE MONITOR: The project will show the names of person who had pressed the RFID key on LCD. One can use DATA encoder/decoder circuit. 18. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C2051 BASED FREQUENCY COUNTER USING LCD: The project will check the unknown frequency input up to 200 KHz. And display at LCD. 19. TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL TRAFFIC MAN: It can actually control traffic with lights and humanoid robot police man rotating in all directions with hand movements for stop and go actions. This is a project comprises two stepper motors to perform the action. 20. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C2051 BASED IR WIRELESS FREQUENCY COUNTER: The project will check the unknown frequency input up to 200KHz. Coming from an IR source and display at LCD. 21. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C2051 BASED COUNTDOWN TIMER: The project performs the countdown operation for up to -99 minutes with two seven segments display showing actual time left to activate or de-activate the connected relay. 22. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C2051 BASED TEMPERATURE INDICATOR: The temperature of room can be displayed at LCD using a sensitive device DS 1621. 23. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C2051 BASED ALARM CLOCK: The unit display the time in Hr. Min. and one can set the alarm also for a desired time at Seven segment display. 24. MICROCONTROLLER AT-89C2051 BASED VEHICLE SPEEDOMETER CUM ODOMETER: The project comprises a dc motor speed controller circuit with reed sensor. It is being detected by this and displays the same at LCD in form of speed KmHr. and also display the distance covered by the vehicle. DETAIL OF SOME APPLICATION Microcontroller based Electronic Governor and Control System of a Mini-hydro Power Plant:- This project is absolute requirement to develop small-scale power plants. The idea is described in the introduction. Then there are some details about the functionality of the system. That is described in both user aspect and technical aspect. The idea will lead to fully automated power plants with remote access, while it is lower cost. Some attractive future development proposals will be at the end of the technical details. INTRODUCTION In brief our project is an Microcontroller based Electronic Governor Control System for Mini Hydro Power Plant. The courses of selecting this project were the expanding the features of the presently available mechanical governor systems and improve the remote controllability of the system in user-friendly manner. In this invention we selected specific mini hydro plant to consideration because of several limitations. The governor of a mini-hydro power plant considers as a heart of the system. It controls the output power and makes the generator frequency up to the grid frequency by utilizing the available water supply to the turbine. Those operations are achieved by controlling the gate valves of the turbine. Almost all the turbine units use this method of control and it comprises of a mechanical actuator and electrical control device to give the desired command signals to the actuator to open or close valves appropriately. Commercially available electronic governors are very expensive. It is very difficult to find a suitable commercial product for a particular power plant and not easy to tune them to reach the best operating condition. Therefore our main focus was to implement an electronic governor system for a user specific circumstance. So the initial stage, we studied the entire control system of a mini-hydro power plant that is situated at Niriella. Then we decided to develop this electronic governor system using newly promoted micro-controller technology. Other than the basic governor operations we impl emented several new features. To interact with the micro-controller some of the electronic devices were re-implemented. BASIC OPERATION Although its called an Electronic governor control system, it consists of some plant automating functions as well. All those functions can be categorized as follows. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Starting and shutting down sequences of the plant. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Frequency controlling until the generator is synchronized with the national grid. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Manual and automatic control of the power output. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Quick safety actions in fatal faulty conditions. FUNCTIONAL UNITS The entire system is an integration of several functional units. The system software controls those units. 1. Generator Frequency Counter 2. Grid Frequency Counter 3. Water Level Sensor 4. Valve Position Sensor 5. Stepper Motor Driver 6. Emergency Circuit Breaker unit 7. Main Board LCD interfacing with Microcontrollers Introduction The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachis HD44780 controller. In this we will discuss about character based LCDs, their interfacing with various microcontrollers, various interfaces (8-bit/4-bit), programming, special stuff and tricks you can do with these simple looking LCDs which can give a new look to your application. Pin Description The most commonly used LCDs found in the market today are 1 Line, 2 Line or 4 Line LCDs which have only 1 controller and support at most of 80 charachers, whereas LCDs supporting more than 80 characters .Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections). Keypad circuit diagram Usually these days you will find single controller LCD modules are used more in the market. So in the tutorial we will discuss more about the single controller LCD, the operation and everything else is same for the double controller too. Lets take a look at the basic information which is there in every LCD. LCD Initialization Before using the LCD for display purpose, LCD has to be initialized either by the internal reset circuit or sending set of commands to initialize the LCD. It is the user who has to decide whether an LCD has to be initialized by instructions or by internal reset circuit. We will discuss both ways of initialization one by one. Initialization by instructions Initializing LCD with instructions is really simple. Given below is a flowchart that describes the step to follow, to initialize the LCD. LCD initialization flow chart Figure 8: Flow chart for LCD initialization As you can see from the flow chart, the LCD is initialized in the following sequence 1) Send command 0x30 Using 8-bit interface 2) Delay 20ms 3) Send command 0x30 8-bit interface 4) Delay 20ms 5) Send command 0x30 8-bit interface 6)Delay 20ms 7) Send Function set see Table 4 for more information 8)Display Clear command 9) Set entry mode command explained below The first 3 commands are usually not required but are recommended when you are using 4-bit interface. So you can program the LCD starting from step 7 when working with 8-bit interface. Programming example for LCD Initialization CODE: LCD_data equ P2      LCD Data port LCD_D7    equ P2.7   LCD D7/Busy Flag LCD_rs    equ P1.0   LCD Register Select LCD_rw    equ P1.1   LCD Read/Write LCD_en    equ P1.2   LCD Enable LCD_init:               mov    LCD_data,#38H   Function set: 2 Line, 8-bit, 57 dots               clr    LCD_rs                           clr    LCD_rw            We are writing in instruction register               setb   LCD_en                        clr    LCD_en               acall LCD_busy      Wait for LCD to process the command               mov    LCD_data,#0FH   Display on, Curson blinking command               clr    LCD_rs                           clr    LCD_rw            We are writing in instruction register               setb   LCD_en                        clr    LCD_en               acall LCD_busy          Wait for LCD to process the command               mov    LCD_data,#01H   Clear LCD               clr    LCD_rs                           clr    LCD_rw            We are writing in instruction register               setb   LCD_en                        clr    LCD_en               acall LCD_busy         Wait for LCD to process the command               mov    LCD_data,#06H   Entry mode, auto increment with no shift               clr    LCD_rs             Selected command register               clr    LCD_rw            We are writing in instruction register               setb   LCD_en                        clr    LCD_en               acall LCD_busy    Wait for LCD to process the command               ret                            Digital Countdown Timer (AT89C2051) A simple count-down LED timer that counts in minutes and seconds. Three buttons below the LED provide control of the unit, allowing you set the desired countdown time in minutes and seconds and a start/stop button. Completion of the countdown is indicated by an alarm that starts when the countdown has finished and the display reads zero. The alarm is stopped by pressing the start/stop button. Circuit diagram:- count AUTOMATIC SOLAR TRACKER AUTOMATIC SOLAR TRACKER starts following the SUN right from dawn, throughout the day, till evening, and starts all over again from dawn next day. On cloudy weathers, it remains still and catches the SUN again as it slips out of clouds. It does all this automatically, employs cheap and inexpensive components, and is very accurate. Let us see how it does all this. There are three Electronic Modules to be explained. First one is the HORIZONTAL SENSOR MODULE. It employs the timer 555 in the MONOSTABLE MODE. PIN 2(Trigger Pin of 555) is hooked up with a VOLTAGE DIVIDER NETWORK (PLEASE see FIGURE 2). PIN 4(Reset) is hooked up with ANOTHER VOLTAGE DIVIDER NETWORK.   Fig 1: Block diagram of the tracker following the sun all through  Fig 1: Block diagram of the tracker following the sun all through fig 4: Stepper motor control board  Fig: Stepper motor control board I have only shown the Horizontal Motor Control Circuit. The Vertical One uses a similar Decade Counter, NPN Transistors, and Diodes (to encounter BACK EMF of Power Transistors due to Fast Switching). I chose for a Steep Angle of 2 Degrees for the Unipolar Steppers. They are driven in a Normal 4 Step Sequence, first coil A is energised simultaneously with coil B, then coil C with coil D. Thus the Motors rotate by 2 degrees each time. The Charging Interval is almost in synchronism with the steps/second speed of the motors, to avoid false triggering. STEPPER MOTOR Introduction This section will explain you everything that you need to know about stepper motors. Stepper motors can be used in various areas of your microcontroller projects such as making robots, robotic arm, automatic door lock system etc. This tutorial will explain you construction of stepper motors, basic principal, different controlling types (Half step and Full step), Interfacing Techniques (using L293D or ULN2003) and programming your microcontroller in C and assembly to control stepper motor. Unipolar stepper motor The unipolar stepper motor has five or six wires and four coils (actually two coils divided by centre connections on each coil). The centre connections of the coils are tied together and used as the power connection. They are called unipolar steppers because power always comes in on this one pole. Bipolar stepper motor The bipolar stepper motor usually has four wires coming out of it. Unlike unipolar steppers, bipolar steppers have no common centre connection. They have two independent sets of coils instead. You can distinguish them from unipolar steppers by measuring the resistance between the wires. You should find two pairs of wires with equal resistance. If youve got the leads of your meter connected to two wires that are not connected (i.e. not attached to the same coil), you should see infinite resistance (or no continuity). As already said, we will talk mostly on Unipolar stepper motors which is most common type of stepper motor available in the market. A simple example of 6 lead step motor is given below and in 5 lead step motor wire 5 and 6 are joined together to make 1 wire as common. Unipolar stepper motor coils Working of Stepper Motor Now lets discuss the operation principal of a stepper motor. When we energize a coil of Stepper motor, the shaft of stepper motor (which is actually a permanent magnet) align itself according to poles of energized coil. So when motor coils are energized in a particular sequence, motor shaft tend to align itself according to pole of coils and hence rotates. A small example of energizing operation is given below. working principal of stepper motor You can see in the example, when coil A is energized, A north-south polarity is generated at A+A as shown in the figure above and magnetic shaft automatically align itself according to the poles generated. When the next coil is energized the shaft again aligns itself and takes a step. Hence , the working principal. working principal of stepper motor We have seen that to make the stepper motor work, we need to energize coil in a sequence. The explanation and generation of the sequence is explained in the next section of the tutorial. Stepper Motor interfacing with Microcontrollers: Programming Stepper motor Programming Full step Sequence I am assuming that stepper motor is connected at Port 1.0 to Port 1.3. Adjusting the delay will increase or decrease the speed of the motor. Here just for demonstration i have taken some delay, you can change it as you want.    org 0H stepper equ P1 main:             mov stepper, #0CH             acall delay             mov stepper, #06H             acall delay             mov stepper, #03H             acall delay             mov stepper, #09H             acall delay             sjmp main delay:             mov r7,#4 wait2:             mov r6,#0FFH wait1:             mov r5,#0FFH wait:             djnz r5,wait             djnz r6,wait1             djnz r7,wait2             ret             end The working of the above code can be seen in the demo animation below. unipolar stepper motor in full step sequence Programming Half step Sequence Assembly Programming: Here also the main routine changes rest everything remains same. CODE: main:             mov stepper, #08H             acall delay             mov stepper, #0CH             acall delay             mov stepper, #04H             acall delay             mov stepper, #06H             acall delay             mov stepper, #02H             acall delay             mov stepper, #03H             acall delay             mov stepper, #01H             acall delay             mov stepper, #09H             acall delay             sjmp main The working of the above code can be seen in the demo animation below. unipolar stepper motor in half step sequence Water level indicator cum controller Water level indicator is which pumps water from the sump (unrepresented concept implements controlling of pump reground tank) to the overhead tank, using 8951 microcontroller. The control panel i.e. the main control unit of the system which consists of the primary control switches, pump indicator, siren and level indicators. The visual example of how switches. And the indicators can be placed as shown the figure below. Front view of the model Front view of the model In the figure shown above there are total of nine LEDs, four of which indicates the water level in the tank, another four indicates the water level in the sump and one LED indicates whether the pump is ON/OFF. It also consists of three switches. 1. Switch 1 is the main power switch which is used to activate the system. 2. Switch 2 is used to select whether to operate the pump in AUTO or MANUAL mode. 3. Switch 3 comes to picture only when the system is operated in MANUAL mode. It controls the direct activation of the pump. Description: This system is built around an 8951 microcontroller and the circuit diagram is as given below. Circuit diagram of Water level indicator cum controller As you can see in the above diagram, port 0 is exclusively used as an input port which takes the information regarding the water level in the sump as well as in the overhead tank. Port 1 is used as output port which is connected to the indicator that indicates the water level in both the tanks. Port 2 is used as in/out port, it takes the input from switch 2 and switches 3 and gives the output which is connected to pump indicator, siren and the relay which controls the switching of the pump. Working of the system: There are two modes of working for the system 1. Manual mode 2. Auto mode Manual mode: When the system is active and in manual mode, it only indicates the water levels in the tanks and it doesnt control any working of the pump. To activate the pump in manual mode switch 3 is used. In this mode the operator should manually control the working of the pump. As in case if the tank is full, operator should switch of the pump which is not the case when compared to auto mode. Auto mode: When the system is active and in auto mode, it only indicates the water levels in the tanks and it controls the working of the pump. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This is the easiest way to make the Host Computer to pin connection. The next step is actually using this connection to download programs to the internal memory and to receive debug information through the IC. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Computer Vision In Bad Weather.

Computer Vision In Bad Weather. Saswati Rakshit Aim: To take advantage of bad weather in estimation of depth of a scene from its image. As in bad weather atmosphere modulates original information of an image to the observer so based on observation,we develop model methods for recovering scene properties(e.g. 3D structure,depth etc). Scope/Application: Computer Vision is widely used in various fields now a days. It is used in Optical character recognition: Technology to convert scanned docs to text  Face detection,Smile detection: Many new digital cameras now detect faces and smiles. surveillance and traffic monitoring. Image to a 3D model : turning a collection of photographs into a 3D model Google Self driving Car uses computer vision for distance estimation Introduction : Vision and Atmosphere: Normally in good weather we assume reflected light passes through air without attenuation.so it is assumed brightness of an image point in the scene will be same.But due to atmospheric scattering,absorption and emission light intensity and color are altered. Here our main consideration is on scattering. Bad weather(Particles in space):- weather condition differ in type and size of particles and their concentration. Air (molecule): scattering due to air is minimal Haze (aerosol): haze is certain to effect visibility. Fog (water droplet): Fog and haze has similar origins.but haze extends to altitude of several miles while fog is few hundred feet thick. Cloud is present in high altitude. Rain and snow both effects in image. Here our main consideration is on haze and fog because they appear in low altitude as compared to cloud. Mechanisms of atmospheric scattering Scattering is dependent on particle size and shape.small particles scatter equally in forward and backward,medium size particle scatters more in forward direction and large particle scatters all in forward direction. In nature particles are separated from each other so they scatter independently.i.e. do not interfere others.but In multiple scattering a particle is exposed not only incident light but also light scattered by other particles. Single scattering function can be written as follows I(Ó ¨,ÃŽ »)=E(ÃŽ »).ÃŽ ²(Ó ¨,ÃŽ ») (1) Where E(ÃŽ ») is total incident flux on the volume per unit cross section area I(Ó ¨,ÃŽ ») is flux radiated per unit solid angle per unit volume of medium and ÃŽ ²(Ó ¨,ÃŽ ») is the angular scattering coefficient Objectives: To identify effects caused by bad weather that can be turned to our advantages.understanding attenuation and airlight model that is helpful to measure depth maps of scenes without making assumption about scene properties or the atmospheric conditions. System flow: Here our main goal is to estimate depth and forming 3D of a scene in bad weather condition. For this purpose we used Two different scattering model 1) Attenuation model 2) Airlight model Now first we have used attenuation model and In this model image is taken at night.so environmental illumination are minimal. To estimate depth of light sources in the scene from two images taken under different atmospheric conditions. And applying different mathematical formula used in attenuation model we can compute relative depth of all sources in the scene from two images taken under two different weather condition. Next to work with airlight model we need images in day or when environmental illumination can not be ignored.that is image of a scene is effected by airlight. After selecting the 2D image we apply mathematical formulas of airlight model and comparing the intensity of scene point depth can be easily measured an 3D reconstruction of that scene is also possible. Mathmatics And Description: Attenuation Model We know that beam of light that travels through atmosphere can be attenuated by scattering.and the radiance(intensity) decreases if pathlength increases. Attenuation model developed by McCartney is summarized below If a beam passing through a small sheet(medium) of thickness dx, intensity scattered by the sheet can be written as follows I(Ó ¨,ÃŽ »)=E(ÃŽ »).ÃŽ ²(Ó ¨,ÃŽ ») dx [it represents scattering in Ó ¨ direction] Now total flux scattered in all direction is obtained by integrating over entire spherical sheet φ(ÃŽ »)=E(ÃŽ »).ÃŽ ²(ÃŽ ») dx -(2) fractional change in irradiance at location x can be written as follows: -(3) By integrating both side of eqn(3) between limits x=0 and x=d we get E(d,)= -(4) Where I0(ÃŽ ») is the intensity of the point source and d is the distance between object and observer’ Sometimes attenuation due to scattering can be expressed in terms of optical thickness which is T= [here is constant over horizontal path] Here eqn (4) gives direct transmission which we get after removing scattered flux. Airlight Model Here atmosphere behaves as source of light.environmental illumination has several light sources including direct sunlight,diffuse skylight and light reflected by the ground.In airlight model light intensity increases with pathlength and so apparent brightness increases. If the object is in infinite distance the radiance of airlight is maximum and radiance of airlight for an object right in front of the observer is zero. To describe the geometry of that model,first we need to consider environmental illumination along the observer’s line of sight is assumed to be constant but direction and intensity is unknown. Let the cone of solid angle dω subtended by a receptor at observer end.and truncated by the object at distance d. This cone between observer and object scatters environmental illumination in the direction of observer.so it acts as airlight(source of light) whose brightness increases with pathlength. So the small volume dV at distance x from observer is dV= dω x2 dx Now the intensity of light incident on dV is dI(x,)= dV k = dω x2 dx k †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(5) now light scatters in dV.so irradiance it produces at observer end is dE(x,) = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.(6) [also given in eqn (4)] Now we can find radiance of dV from its irradiance as: dL(x,) = = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..(7) by substituting (5) we get, dL(x,)= now we will find total radiance of pathlength d from observer to object by integrating the above expression between x=0 to x=d L(d,)= k (1-) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.(8) If d =∞ the radiance of airlight is maximum L(∞,=k So , L(d,)= L(∞, (1-) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(9) Estimation of depth using Attenuation Model: In this model image is taken at night.so environmental illumination are minimal and so airlight model is not chosen.At night bright points of image are normally street light,windows of lit rooms.In clear night these light sources are visible to observer in brightest and clearest form but in bad weather condition the intensity diminish due to attenuation. Our goal is to estimate depth of light sources in the scene from two images taken under different atmospheric conditions. Here image irradiance can be written using eqn(4) as: E(d,)= g (10) [g is optical parameters of camera] If the detector of the camera has spectral response s(ÃŽ »),he final image brightness value is E/== (11) We know spectral bandwidth of camera is limited so we can assume as constant. And we can write, E/=g=g I/ (12) Now if we take image in two different weather condition i.e. in mild and dense fog then there will be two different scattering coefficient. Let it will be ÃŽ ²1 and ÃŽ ²2.now if we take ratio of two resulting image brightness we get R== -(13) Using natural log R/=ln R= †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..(14) This ratio is independent of camera sensor gain and intensity of source. In fact it is only difference in optical thickness(DOT) of the source for two weather conditions. Now if we compute the DOT of two different light source and take the ratio we determine relative depths of two source locations So we can write, = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.(15) Since we may not entirely trust the DOT computed for any single source.so above calculation can be made more robust = †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..(16) [here we assume to find the intensity of a single source pi,which is at distance di from observer.so to calculate its relative depth from other sources we need to compute depth of all sources of the scene upto a scale factor] The main goal of using this model is to compute relative depth of all sources in the scene from two images taken under two different weather condition. Estimation of depth using Airlight Model: At noon or daytime in dense haze or fog or mild fog most visible scene points are not illuminated and airlight effects.airlight causes intensity to increase when distance increases. Here we consider a single airlight image and try to compute 3d scene structure by measuring depth cues. Let,a scene point is at distance d and produce airlight radiance L(d,).if our camera has spectral response S( The brightness value of that scene point is: E/(d)= †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.(17) Substituting it by eqn (9),we get E/(d)= †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(18) If is constant we can write, E/(d)= †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(19) Now Let, S= †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(20) By substituting eqn(19) at eqn (20),and taking natural logarithm we can write, S/= ln S = -ÃŽ ²d †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(21) Here S/ is scale factor and a 3D structure of scene can be recovered upto this scale factor The part of horizon in the image which has intensity will be the brightest region of the image.(sky background) Future work:Next we will understand and discuss about Dichromatic Atmospheric Scattering and structure from Chromatic Decomposition. References: http://www.canberra.edu.au/irps/archives/vol21no1/blbalaw.html (Accessed on 20.04.2015) Narasimhan, S. G., Nayar, S. K., â€Å"Vision and the Atmosphere†, International Journal of Computer Vision, vol. 48(3), pp. 233–254, 2002. Allard’s Law, http://eilv.cie.co.at/term/34. (Accessed on 18.03.2015) Relation between Radiance and Irradiance, 2013, http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/68353/relation-between-radiance-and-irradiance. (Accessed on 18.03.2015) Radiaometry and Photometry, http://electron6.phys.utk.edu/optics421/modules/m4/radiometry.htm (Accessed on 28.03.2015

Brainstorming :: essays research papers

Brainstorming Need a topic for an English assignment? Need a solution to a business problem? Brainstorming is a great way to find answers. Many problem solving or idea generating solutions may not be best managed by the first idea. It is best to consider many solutions. Brainstorming is a method of shared problem solving in which all members of a group spontaneously contribute ideas in a set amount of time. It involves three basic steps: identifying the issue, generating and listing ideas, and evaluating and picking a solution. The first and most important step in brainstorming is to identify the problem or idea to be explored. Those involved in the process need to be clear on the topic. The question or issue must be one about which all participants can speak to. To maximize contribution, parties involved in the process must feel free from insults or evaluations of their suggestions. The second step in the process is to generate and list ideas or options. Begin with a few moments of reflection as the ideas start to come to mind. Write down ideas as they come to mind regardless how impossible they may seem. Repetitive answers or â€Å"piggy-backing† ideas should be encouraged. A reasonable time frame should be established to meet goals or deadlines in a timely fashion. The third step in brainstorming is to evaluate and pick a solution. In reviewing the ideas generated ask some questions about the ideas and/or solutions to determine the importance of these. What does this idea or solution have in relation to the key topic idea? Why is this idea listed? How closely related is it to other ideas generated? Does this solution best fit the issue addressed? Solutions should be reviewed for its effectiveness. In the event the solution is not effective, one can refer back to the creative

Americans Benefit from the Abuse of Migrant Farm Workers :: Essays Papers

Eating-up Exploitation: How Americans Benefit from the Abuse of Migrant Farm Workers As Americans become more health conscious, their consumption of fruits and vegetables is increased at astronomical levels. Since migrant farm workers are responsible for picking the majority of these products, the eating habits of Americans perpetuate the very farm labor market conditions that many people would like to put an end to. Therefore, whether knowingly or not, Americans are exploiting these Migrant workers who are paid less then minimum wage, have no power to bargain with their employers, and have inadequate and unacceptable living accommodations. In New England, the harvest of blueberries and apples are crucial to the economy, and are in abundant supply. Those who pick these fruits travel across the country, and often across international boarders to fill agricultural jobs that U.S. citizens are not willing to take. Both blueberries and apples are extremely difficult crops to harvest, and require extensive manual labor. Migrant workers are willing to fill these physically exhausting positions because of economic hardships, and the lack of jobs in their own countries. The phenomena of Migrant Workers would not be possible if the migrants were able to get jobs elsewhere, but as many come from Third-World Countries with little economic possibilities, this is not possible. What has resulted is an inexhaustible supply of cheap labor to the United States. This willingness on the part of the workers to work for wages otherwise unacceptable in the United States is problematic. Employers in this position are not under any pressure to reveal truthful, or even any information about wage rates, and many workers do not ask how much they will be paid. As a result, workers often do not know how much they will paid until they are thousands of miles away from their homes, and frequently not until they are paid at the end of a week. This is the story for the Mexican blueberry pickers in Maine, and the growing number of apple pickers who are Jamaican. Mexicans are the majority of blueberry pickers in central Maine where the majority of wild lowbush blueberry plants grow.

Who is to blame Essay -- essays research papers

Who Is To Blame? â€Å"Frankenstein†, one of the key texts in modern literature, was written by Mary Shelley in 1818 when she was only 21. The novel was first published anonymously, and the author was only later revealed to be Shelley. When she republished the book in 1831, with changes to the story, Shelley had finally answered the question she had been asked several times: how could such a young girl write about such horrible things? Her answer describes her literary sources, as well as a disturbing dream that was the kernel of inspiration for the story. â€Å"Frankenstein† is a tale about a man named Victor Frankenstein who creates life out of ‘raw materials’. As the story unfolds, the creature comes to life and ends up, out of revenge, killing several members of Frankenstein’s family. Although ...

History of Worldcup

INTRODUCTION The FIFA World Cup, often simply the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the senior men's national teams of the members of Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War. The current champions are Spain, who won the 2010 tournament.The current format of the tournament involves 32 teams competing for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over a period of about a month; this phase is often called the World Cup Finals. A qualification phase, which currently takes place over the preceding three years, is used to determine which teams qualify for the tournament together with the host nation(s). The 19 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the on ly team to have played in every tournament.The other World Cup winners are Italy, with four titles; Germany, with three titles; Argentina and inaugural winners Uruguay, with two titles each; and England, France, and Spain, with one title each. The World Cup is the world's most widely viewed sporting event; an estimated 715. 1 million people watched the final match of the 2006 FIFA World Cup held in Germany. The next three World Cups will be hosted by Brazil in 2014, Russia in 2018, and Qatar in 2022. HISTORY DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD CUP | |The world's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England, which ended in a 0–0 draw. The first international tournament, the inaugural edition of the British Home Championship, took place in 1884. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the turn of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics (however, the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games.After FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure. At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official competition. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition.Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipto n tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each one of which represented an entire nation.The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a â€Å"world football championship for amateurs†, and took responsibility for managing the event. This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and thirteen European teams, and won by Belgium. 8] Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional BEGINNING OF WORLD CUP Due to the success of the Ol ympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself. 9] With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. Indeed, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip.In total thirteen nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America. The first two Worl d Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and USA, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and in doing so became the first nation to win the World Cup. [11] World Cups before SECOND WORLD WARAfter the creation of the World Cup, the 1932 Summer Olympics, held in Los Angeles, did not plan to include football as part of the schedule due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States, as American football had been growing in popularity. FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the Games. Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of in tercontinental travel, and war.Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments, with Brazil the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Nazi Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath. World Cups after SECOND WORLD WAR The 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British participants. British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football, but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called â€Å"Maracanazo† (Portuguese: Maracanaco). In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tou rnament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. 16] Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: USA, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938; Korea DPR, quarter-finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1970. The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982,[17] and then to 32 in 1998,[18] also allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part.Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals: Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1986; Cameroon, qua rter-finalists in 1990; Korea Republic, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter-finalists in 2002; and Ghana as quarter-finalists in 2010. Nevertheless, European and South American teams continue to dominate, e. g. , the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998 and 2006 were all from Europe or South America.Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. [19] THE AWARDS AND TROPHY From 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winner. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently.However, the trophy was stolen in 1983, and has never been recovered, apparently melt ed down by the thieves. [23] After 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven different countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14. 2 in) high, made of solid 18 carat (75%) gold and weighs 6. 175 kg (13. 6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: â€Å"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory. â€Å"[24] This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy until the next tournament and are awarded a gold-p lated replica rather than the solid gold original. [25] At the present, all members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three eams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runner-ups' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the 2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea. Prior to the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. [26][27][28] Format AND STRUCTURE Since the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. 29] They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FI FA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations.Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. [30] From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations received automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. [31]The current final tournament features 32 na tional teams competing over a month in the host nation(s). There are two stages: the group stage followed by the knockout stage. [32] In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings and/or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups. [33] The other teams are assigned to different â€Å"pots†, usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups.Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. [34] Each group plays a round-robin tournament, in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. [35] The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group.Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). THE HOSTS OF WORLD CUP Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. [37] The next two World Cups were both held in Europe.The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup. [38] Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FI FA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the only tournament with multiple hosts. 39] South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010. The 2014 FIFA World Cup will be hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since 1978,[40] and will be the first occasion where consecutive World Cups are held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Executive Committee. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a â€Å"Hosting Agreement† from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid.The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FI FA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. However, there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar respectively.For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament is rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hos ted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. 41] This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Sweden (runners-up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), Korea Republic (fourth place in 2002), and Mexico (quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, South Africa (2010) was the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round. Organisation and media coverageThe World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games. The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26. 29 billion. [1] 715. 1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament (a ninth of the entire population of the planet). The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. [42] Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. [43] Recent World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each World Cup. CONCLUSION To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by European and South American teams. European nations have won ten titles; South American teams have won nine. Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: USA (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930 and Korea Republic (Asia) who reached the semis in 2002.The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter-finals: Cameroon in 1990, Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010. Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round. [51] Brazil, Argentina, and Spain are the onl y teams to win a World Cup outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002), Argentina won a North American World Cup in 1986, while Spain won the only African World Cup in 2010.Only on three occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent – Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively, while Spain's 2010 triumph followed Italy's in 2006. Among the national teams, Germany have played the most World Cup matches, with 99,[66] while Brazil have scored the most World Cup goals, with 210. [67] The two teams have played each other only once in the World Cup, in the 2002 final. RERENCESS